From Economic
and Political Weekly
April 1, 2006
Vol. XLI, no. 13 (pp.1241-6)
Poverty and Capitalism
Barbara Harriss-White - 2006
University Professor of Development Studies; Director of the School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies programme - Faculty of Oriental Studies - University of Oxford
The 21st century has witnessed an impoverishment of the concept of
development.
From its
start as a project of capitalist industrialisation and agrarian change,
the political direction and
social transformation that accompany this process – and the deliberate
attempt to order and
mitigate its necessary ill effects on human beings and their habitats –
development has been
reduced to an assault on poverty, apparently driven by international
aid, trade and financial
agencies and festooned in targets. At the same time, the concept of
poverty has been
enriched by being recognised as having many dimensions –
monetary/income poverty,
human development poverty, social exclusion and poor peoples’ own
understandings
developed through participatory interactions [Laderchi et al 2003].
While it may be possible to mitigate
poverty through social transfers, it is not possible to eradicate the
processes that create
poverty under capitalism.
Eight such processes are discussed: the
creation of the preconditions; petty commodity production
and trade; technological change and unemployment; (petty)
commodification; harmful commodities and waste; pauperising
crises; climate-change-related pauperisation; and the unrequired,
incapacitated and/or dependent human body under
capitalism. Ways to regulate these processes and to protect against
their impact are discussed.
|
From the Center
for Economic and Policy Research
The Scorecard on Development, 1960-2010:
Closing the Gap?
Mark Weisbrot and Rebecca Ray
April 2011 (Graphics revised for clarity; April 21, 2011)
This paper is the third installment in a series (the first and second editions were in 2001 and 2005)
that traces a long-term growth failure in most of the world's countries. For the vast majority of the
world’s low- and middle-income countries, there was a sharp slowdown in economic growth for the
two decades from 1980-2000, as compared to 1960-1980. By 2005, the story had still not changed
very much.
As would be expected, this long-term decline in growth also brought a decline in progress on social
indicators, including life expectancy, infant and child mortality, and education. This was not the
result of “diminishing returns,” either in economic growth or in the achievable progress in social
indicators, as we showed previously. More likely, it was a result of policy failures. But this
widespread, historic long-term slowdown in economic growth and social progress received very little
attention or investigation.
The past decade has shown a rebound in economic growth as well as progress on social indicators
for many countries. In this paper, which looks at data for economic growth as well as health and
education indicators for 191 countries over the last fifty years, we look at the economic performance
of the last decade, as well as available social indicators, to see if the long slow-down in growth for
the vast majority of countries has finally been reversed.
The question that we raised ten years ago, and is still relevant, is: how much of this growth
slowdown can be attributed to the policy reforms that characterized the post-1980 era? For most
low- and middle-income countries, these reforms included tighter fiscal and monetary policies
(including inflation-targeting regimes and increasing independence of central banks); a large
reduction of tariffs and non-tariff barriers to trade; financial deregulation and increased opening to
international capital flows; privatization of state-owned enterprises; increased protectionism in the
area of intellectual property; and the general abandonment of state-led industrialization or
development strategies.
|
|
Structural Change in
the World Economy: Main Features and Trends - 2009
Olga Memedovic - Research and Statistics Branch
Programme Coordination and Field Operations Division
UNIDO - and Lelio Iapadre - Associate Professor of International
Economics
University of L’Aquila
Johns Hopkins University — SAIS Bologna Center
UNU Institute for Comparative Regional Integration Studies
This working paper presents a
quantitative analysis of sectoral trends in the global economy.
After surveying the relevant theoretical and empirical literature on
structural change, we discuss
the historical evolution of agriculture, industry and services in terms
of their share of world
value added. This analysis refers to six continental regions and covers
a period of 40 years.
Constant-market-shares (CMS) analysis is then used to investigate
changes in the contribution
of regional aggregates to world production. This is followed by an
analysis of the evolution of
the manufacturing industry and the intensity of structural change for a
sample of 30 countries
and 18 sub-sectors for which data are available in the UNIDO INDSTAT 2,
2009 database.
Three main findings resulted from the analysis. First, the long-term
rise in the share of services
in global value added has been slowing down in the last decade. Second,
the upward trend in the
global value added share of North America and Asia seems to be partly
reverted in favour of
other regions. Third, after a setback during the 1980s, structural
transformation in the
manufacturing sector has been accelerating in the last two decades. The
purpose of this paper is
to provide a starting point for more specific studies at sector,
national and regional level.
|
From The World Bank Group
2005 International Comparison
Program Global Purchasing Power Parities and Real Expenditures
2008 by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The
World Bank
|
United Nations
Development Policy and
Analysis Division
World Economic Situation and Prospects 2008
Executive Summary
The world economy facing uncertain times
After several years of robust growth, the world economy is now facing
some serious challenges
in sustaining its brisk pace. The end of the housing bubble in the
United States of
America, as well as the unfolding credit crisis, the decline of the
United States dollar visà-
vis other major currencies, the persistence of large global imbalances
and high oil prices
will all threaten the sustainability of global economic growth in the
coming years.
Slower, but nonetheless robust, global economic growth in 2008
The growth of the world economy moderated somewhat from 3.9 per cent in
2006 to a
nonetheless robust 3.7 per cent during 2007. The baseline forecast of
the United Nations
for 2008 is for growth of the world economy to slow further to 3.4 per
cent, but the darkening
clouds of downside risks are looming much larger than a year ago...
|
Institute for Policy Research and Development
See its International Academic Advisory Board
The Institute for Policy Research & Development (IPRD) is an
independent research institute for interdisciplinary security studies,
analysing international terrorism, military interventions, as well as
national and international conflicts, in the context of global
ecological, energy and economic crises. Founded in April 2001 in
Brighton, a UN ‘Peace Messenger’ City for 20 years, the Institute now
runs from the heart of London as an informal, non-profit international
network of specialist scholars, experts and analysts.
|
DP2004/09
Tony Addison:
Development
Policy: An Introduction for Students
(PDF 151KB)
This paper discusses development policy objectives, noting how these
have changed
over the years, with a more explicit focus on poverty reduction coming
recently to the
fore. It also examines the relationship between economic growth and
poverty reduction.
The paper then discusses how to achieve economic growth, starting with
the caveat that
growth must be environmentally sustainable, and moves on to the big
question of the
respective roles for the market mechanism and the state in allocating
society’s
productive resources. The paper next discusses how economic reform has
been
implemented, and the political difficulties that arise. It concludes
that getting
development policy right has the potential to lift millions out of
poverty.
RP2005/23
Tony Addison, George Mavrotas, and Mark McGillivray:
Development
Assistance and Development Finance: Evidence and Global Policy Agendas
(PDF 202KB)
Understanding the development effects of official aid is crucial to
building a better bridge
between research and policy. This paper reviews the current evidence
regarding the impact of
aid on growth and poverty reduction, and develops a new narrative. In
the light of this
narrative, the paper then examines aid trends, focusing on the regions
of sub-Saharan Africa
and the Pacific. The paper then turns to recent discussion of new and
innovative sources of
development finance and considers how research has influenced the
policy debate through a
recent UNU-WIDER study for the UN General Assembly. The paper concludes
that aid
broadly works, that poverty would be higher in the absence of aid, and
that the shortfall in aid
during the 1990s has, by implication, made it more difficult to meet
the Millennium
Development Goals. Hence, a considerable catch-up in aid and other
development finance
flows is now necessary if poverty is to be substantially reduced by
2015.
RP2006/52
John Toye:
Modern
Bureaucracy
(PDF 181KB)
Max Weber believed that bureaucracy could be understood by analysing
its ideal-typical
characteristics, and that these characteristics would become more
pervasive as the modern age
advanced. Weber’s horizontal account of bureaucracy can be criticised
on various grounds,
including its unrealistic notion of bureaucratic rationality. An
alternative view is proposed,
namely, that the development of state bureaucracies is driven by the
trajectory of the highpower
politics in which they are nested.
This claim is examined in the light of historical examples of the
evolution of bureaucracies – in
Prussia, Britain, the USA and Japan. In analysing these cases, the
paper examines the original
visions behind different institutional designs in different countries,
and discusses how the vision
was formed and how durable it proved to be. In contrast to sociological
and historical
explanations, the analytical contribution of new institutional
economists to understanding the
problems of bureaucratic evolution is assessed.
Then, moving from positive to normative, it is asked why there is an
evaluative ambiguity in the
idea of modern bureaucracy. In other words, why is it at the same time
regarded as an essential
requirement of a developmental state, and as a pathological aspect of
the state’s executive
action? Five common complaints about bureaucracy are discussed in the
light of Peter Evans’s
‘hybridity model’ of public action, leading to the conclusion that some
of these problems are
quite deep-seated and likely to be unyielding to recent attempts at
reform.
-------------------------
RP2006/08
Louis Emmerij:
Turning
Points in Development Thinking and Practice
(PDF
90KB)
Why and when do turning points occur? How are they prepared? What are
the choices
before us when it comes to economic and social development policies?
What is the role
of culture in development? Do ideas play a role? What are the interests
behind the
ideas? The present paper tries to answer these and other questions and
compares the
advantages and disadvantages of global development theories with
regional and local
development policies that put more emphasis on the role of culture in
economic
development.
Original version presented to
WIDER in June 2005
DP2003/38
Maiju Perälä:
‘Looking
at the Other Side of the Coin’: The Relationship between Classical
Growth and Early Development Theories
(PDF 229KB)
This paper extends the history of thought narrative on Allyn Young to
recognize the
close relationship that the classical growth theory has with the early
development
theory, as Young’s externalities-fuelled, cumulative growth process
influenced the
theoretical thought of the early development theory pioneers, Paul
Rosenstein-Rodan
and Ragnar Nurkse. The conditions that prevent the development of
underdeveloped
regions, indivisibilities and inelasticities of supplies and demands,
represent the
breakdown of the conditions that Young highlights as necessary for
self-sustaining
growth to occur. Hence, Young’s cumulative growth process underlies the
view of these
early development theorists, though their focus is on the
malfunctioning and restarting
of this process.
DP2003/37
Maiju Perälä:
Persistence of
Underdevelopment: Does the Type of Natural Resource Endowment Matter?
(PDF 283KB)
This paper examines growth successes and failures across countries and
notes the
latter’s perplexing predominance among ex ante low-income economies. An
explanation for this persistence of underdevelopment is proposed
through an empirical
investigation that brings forth evidence on the importance of natural
resource
endowment type on growth or, more appropriately, lack of it. The
results show that, in
the absence of social cohesion, the nature of natural resource
abundance bears great
significance as a natural resource endowment characterized by oil
and/or mineral
resources is more negatively correlated with growth than a resource
endowment that is
agricultural. The robustness of this result is tested across a number
of growth regression
specifications within the literature.
|
From the International Monetary Fund
|
From the United Nations Organisation - April 2006
- International
Day of Reflection on the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda (7 April)
SECRETARY-GENERAL OBSERVES INTERNATIONAL DAY OF REFLECTION ON 1994
RWANDA GENOCIDE
Launches Action Plan to Prevent Genocide Involving UN System in Speech
to Commission on Human Rights
Following is the speech delivered today by United Nations
Secretary-General Kofi Annan to the Commission on Human Rights at a
special meeting to observe the International Day of Reflection on the
1994 Genocide in Rwanda. The meeting was held at the Assembly Hall of
the Palais des Nations. The speech was delivered after the participants
observed two minutes of silence in memory of the victims of the
genocide:
“It is good that we have observed those minutes of silence together.
We must never forget our collective failure to protect at least eight
hundred thousand defenceless men, women and children who perished in
Rwanda ten years ago. Such crimes cannot be reversed. Such failures
cannot be repaired. The dead cannot be brought back to life. So what
can we do?"...
- World Health Day (7 April)
Each year on April 7th, the world celebrates World Health Day. On this
day around the globe, thousands of events mark the importance of health
for productive and happy lives.
To reduce child mortality, improve maternal health and combat HIV/AIDS,
malaria and other diseases are among the Millennium
Development Goals which all Member States have pledged to meet by
the year 2015.
- World Book and Copyright Day (23
April)
23 April is a symbolic date for world literature for on this date in
1616, Cervantes, Shakespeare and Inca Garcilaso de la Vega all died. It
is also the date of birth or death of other prominent authors such as
Maurice Druon, Haldor K.Laxness, Vladimir Nabokov, Josep Pla and Manuel
Mejía Vallejo.
It was a natural choice for UNESCO's General Conference, held
in Paris in 1995, to pay a world-wide tribute to books and authors on
this date, encouraging everyone, and in particular young people, to
discover the pleasure of reading and gain a renewed respect for the
irreplaceable contributions of those who have furthered the social and
cultural progress of humanity. In this respect, UNESCO created both the
World Book and Copyright Day and the UNESCO Prize for Children's and
Young People's Literature in the Service of Tolerance.
- United Nations
Literacy Decade (2003-2012)
While societies enter into the information and knowledge society, and
modern technologies develop and spread at rapid speed, 860 million
adults are illiterate, over 100 million children have no access to
school, and countless children, youth and adults who attend school
or other education programmes fall short of the required level to be
considered literate in today´s complex world.
- International Decade for Action: Water for Life
(2005-2015)
A United Nations office to support the International Decade for Action
“Water for Life” 2005-2015 opened in Zaragoza, Spain, on 5 October
2007. The office will be managed by the United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) and will facilitate the
coordinated implementation of UN-Water’s work on water and sanitation,
especially in the areas of communication and advocacy to raise
awareness of the challenges and opportunities to solve global water and
sanitation issues.
-
Water Day
The United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution A/RES/47/193 of 22 December 1992 by which 22 March
of each year was declared World Day for Water, to be observed starting
in 1993, in conformity with the recommendations of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) contained in Chapter 18 (Fresh Water Resources) of Agenda 21.
States were invited to devote the Day, as appropriate in the national
context, to concrete activities such as the promotion of public
awareness through the publication and diffusion of documentaries and
the organization of conferences, round tables, seminars and expositions
related to the conservation and development of water resources and the
implementation of the recommendations of Agenda 21.
- International Year of
Deserts and Desertification (2006)
The United Nations General Assembly, at its 58th session, adopted
resolution A/Res/58/211 which declares 2006 the International
Year of Deserts and Desertification. The decision was taken to help
prevent the exacerbation of desertification around the globe. The
General Assembly invites all countries, international and civil society
organizations to celebrate the Year 2006 and to support public
awareness activities related to desertification and land degradation.
|
The
Reith Lectures.
Reith 2007
Reith 2006
The Triumph of Technology (2005)
This year's Reith
Lecturer is the distinguished engineer, Lord Broers who is President of
the Royal Academy of Engineering and Chairman of the House of Lords
Science and Technology Committee.
Lecture 1:
Technology
will Determine the Future of the Human Race
Lecture 2:
Collaboration
Lecture 3:
Innovation
and Management
Lecture 4:
Nanotechnology
and Nanoscience
Lecture 5:
Risk and
Responsibility
--------------------
I am
Right, you are Dead (2004)
This year's Reith lecturer is Nobel Prize-winning poet and playwright,
Wole Soyinka, who was imprisoned in Nigeria for his opposition to
dictatorship.
Lecture 1:
The
Changing Mask of Fear
Lecture 2:
Power and
Freedom
Lecture 3:
Rhetoric
that Binds and Blinds
Lecture 4:
A Quest
for Dignity
Lecture 5:
I am
Right; You are Dead
---------------------
The
Emerging Mind (2003)
This year's Reith lecturer is the noted neuroscientist Vilayanur S.
Ramachandran, Director of the Centre for Brain and Cognition at the
University of California (San Diego).
Lecture 1:
Phantoms
in the Brain
Lecture 2:
Synapses
and the Self
Lecture 3:
The Artful
Brain
Lecture 4:
Purple
Numbers and Sharp Cheese
Lecture 5:
Neuroscience
- the New Philosophy
-----------------------
A
Question of Trust (2002)
Onora O'Neill
challenges current approaches to accountability, investigates sources
of deception in our society and re-examines questions of press freedom.
Lecture 1:
Spreading
Suspicion
Lecture 2:
Trust and
Terror
Lecture 3:
Called to
Account
Lecture 4:
Trust and
Transparency
Lecture 5:
Licence to
Deceive
-------------------------
The
End of Age (2001)
Tom Kirkwood,
Professor of Medicine and head of the Department of Gerontology at the
University of Newcastle.
Dramatic increases in life expectancy are shaking the structure of
societies around the world and profoundly altering our perceptions of
life and death.
1: Brave
Old World
2: Thread
of Life
3: Sex and
Death
4: Making
Choices
5: New
Directions
---------
Reith
2000
-----
Reith
1999
The
subject of the 1999 lecture series is the Runaway World
Anthony Giddens speaks to audiences around the world on the theme of
globalisation.
|
Friends
of the Earth - 8 November 2005
Britain: Young people
take action on climate change
Sixty per cent of
young people, aged 8-14, are concerned that the world will suffer the
effects of climate change when they are adults and more than seventy
per cent of them already take action at home or school to save energy,
a new survey reveals today. The results are published as part of
Friends of the Earth's activity week for schools `Shout about climate
change', which runs from 7-11 November 2005.
|
| Issues of Journal of Third World Studies:
|
From PAE, No 33, 14 September 2005
The Rise and Demise of the New Public Management
Wolfgang Drechsler
(University of Tartu and Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia)
Within the public sphere, the most important reform movement of the
last quarter of a century has been the New Public Management (NPM). It
is of particular interest in the post-autistic economics (pae) context
because NPM largely rests on the same ideology and epistemology as
standard textbook economics (STE) is based, and it has had, and still
has, similar results.
---------------------------- |
From PAE, No. 33, 14 September 2005
Forum on Economic Reform
Can the World Bank Be Fixed?
David Ellerman
(University of California at Riverside)
If the goal of development assistance is to foster autonomous
development, then most aid and "help" is actually unhelpful in the
sense of either overriding or undercutting the autonomy of those being
"helped." The two principal forms of unhelpful "help" are social
engineering and charitable relief. The World Bank is the primary
example over the last half century of the failures of social
engineering to "engineer" development. Frustration over these failures,
particularly in Africa, is now leading the Bank and many other
development agencies towards the other form of unhelpful help, namely,
long-term charitable relief. The paper outlines some of the reasons for
the failure of socially engineered economic, legal, and social reforms
both in the developing world and in the post-socialist transition
countries. Finally, the argument is summarized in five
structural reasons why the World Bank cannot be "fixed."
------------------------- |
The World Bank Group - 31 May 1994
Governance - the World Bank ' s
experience
This report
summarizes the governance work undertaken by the World Bank in the last
two years. It provides an overview of governance activities in lending,
economic and sector work, and in research and dialogue. Progress across
regions is reported under the four major components of governance
identified in the 1992 governance report: 1) public sector management;
2) accountability; 3) legal framework for development; and 4)
transparency and information. In addition, other issues that are
related to Bank activities - such as more participatory approaches to
policy, program, and project design and implementation, military
expenditures; and human rights - are raised. Internal procedures and
organizational issues relevant to the Bank ' s governance work are also
discussed
------------------- |
 |
Jeffrey Sachs - 8 April 2005
Message to Washington:
get serious about development
Giving to
developing countries has been underrated by U.S. policymakers for
years. And yet, the Bush Administration has recently proclaimed it to
be a pivotal part of U.S. national security. Jeff Sachs, the Director
of the Earth Institute at Columbia University, wonders: Are these
claims for real — or just empty promises?
------------------ |
New Economic Foundation:
The Real World Economics
The international
economic system creates damaging inequalities between rich and poor,
and fuels climate change and environmental degradation. Through Real
World Economic Outlook, nef aims to expose the problems with the
international finance and economic systems and create appropriate
remedies. We are also researching and campaigning on changes to global
governance to tackle international issues like climate change,
and work by jubilee research continues nef’s pioneering
involvement in tackling international debt. transforming markets goes
beyond corporate responsibility to set out a new vision for harnessing
and channelling enterprise to meet social and environmental need.
------------------------ |
World Bank:
Prospects for the Global Economy
2005
------------------------ |
From The World Bank Group
The Role and Effectiveness of
Development Assistance
Lessons from World
Bank Experience
A Research Paper from the Development Economics Vice Presidency of the
World Bank
------------------- |
18 March 2005
Development and Security
By The Globalist
Is too much emphasis put on the military dimension of security today?
And how does global poverty factor into the equation? These are the
issues explored by Horst Köhler — now Germany’s President and
previously the Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund. In
this Read My Lips feature, Mr. Köhler argues that the world needs a
broader interpretation of the term “security.”
------------------------ |
15 March 2005
Robber Barons of the
Internet Age?
By Guy Pfeffermann
and Bernard Wasow
Poor countries lack infrastructure and IT hardware that could
accelerate development. For that reason, there are calls for a
so-called digital solidarity fund for developing nations that would
permit these nations to acquire technology as a way of promoting
economic growth and improving the life of its people. Guy Pfeffermann
and Bernard Wasow examine how and why many of the world's poorest
countries are being denied access to the global web.
------------------------- |
The World Bank Group
acknowledges the dramatic social and economic damage caused by its
economic policies imposed on developing societies in the last 30 years,
and launches a new neo-liberal recipe called "development policy
lending". Of course, being The World Bank Group the "visible hand" of
the big international capital, its new development policy lending looks
very much the same old wine in new bottles. Below are the
official press releases (Dr. Róbinson Rojas)
..
|
| United Nations Millennium
Declaration - September 2000 |
Millenium Development Goals
1.-Eradicate extreme
poverty and hunger
2.-Achieve
universal primary education
3.-Promote
gender equality and empower women
4.-Reduce
child mortality
5.-Improve
maternal health
6.-Combat
HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7.-Ensure
environmental sustainability
8.-Develop a
global partnership for development
|
The World Bank Group
World Development Indicators 2004
--------------------- |
Fighting against poverty (16-12-2004)
Reflect and ICT Project
This DFID-funded
project is exploring potential applications of ICTs for poor and
marginalised people, linking to existing Reflect groups in Uganda,
Burundi and India.
During the first year (2003), participating groups were encouraged to
analyse issues around their own access to and control of information
relating to their livelihoods: looking at the value of information to
their own lives, the control of information resources, existing sources
of information and communication mechanisms
-----
ICT for Development:
empowerment or exploitation?
Learning from Reflect ICTs project
By Hannah Beardon
et al
----------------- |
|
|
United Nations - Economic
Comission for Latin America and the Caribbean
Twenty-Ninth Session, Brasilia, Brasil
6-10 May 2002
Globalization and Development
The process that has come to be known as globalization, -i.e.,
the progressively greater influence being exerted by worldwide
economic, social and cultural processes over national or regional
ones— is clearly leaving its mark on the world of today. This is not a
new process. Its historical roots run deep. Yet the dramatic changes in
terms of space and time being brought about by the communications
and information revolution represent a qualitative break with the past.
In the light of these changes, the countries of the region have
requested
the secretariat to focus the deliberations of the twenty-ninth session
of
ECLAC on the issue of globalization and development.
Globalization clearly opens up opportunities for development.
We are all aware -and rightfully so- that national strategies should
be designed to take advantage of the potential and meet the
requirements associated with greater integration into the world
economy.
This process also, however, entails risks:
risk generated by
new sources of instability in trade flows and, especially, finance;
the
risk that countries unprepared for the formidable demands of
competitiveness in today’s world may be excluded from the process;
and the risk of an exacerbation of the structural heterogeneity existing
among social sectors and regions within countries whose linkages with
the world economy are segmented and marginal in nature.
Many
of these risks are associated with two disturbing aspects of
the globalization process:
The
first is the
bias in the current
form of market globalization created by the fact that the mobility of
capital and the mobility of goods and services exist alongside
severe restrictions on the mobility of labour. This is reflected in the
asymmetric, incomplete nature
of the international agenda that accompanies the globalization process.
This agenda does not, for
example, include labour mobility. Nor does it include mechanisms for
ensuring the global coherence
of the central economies’ macroeconomic policies, international
standards for the appropriate
taxation of capital, or agreements regarding the mobilization of
resources to relieve the
distributional tensions generated by globalization between and within
countries...The
second...
|
United Nations University
World
Institute for Development Economic Research
WIDER Conference on The New
Economy in Development
Helsinki, Finland,
10-11 May 2002
The role of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the process of
development
|
|
Third World Network:
"Economically
speaking, we are more dependent on the ex-colonial powers than we ever
were. The World Bank and the IMF are playing the role that our
ex-colonial masters used to play."
Martin Khor,
---
World
Bank-IMF
---
Structural
Adjustment Policies
---
Third
World Debt
---
Transnational
Corporations
---
Social
Development
---
Globalization
---
General
|
Andre Gunder Frank (1995)
The Underdevelopment of
Development
"I intend to
undertake a political sociology of knowledge of the study of
development based on my own experience and perspective. I review the
three varieties of development economics; neo-classical (right),
Keynesian (center) and Marxist (left) and autobiographically my own
participation in all of them. Perhaps I can also clarify how on further
reflection my choice for the study of development is now none of the
above. I would not wish to find myself in any of these camps when H.W.
Arndt (1987: 162-3) can write:..."
|
Róbinson
Rojas on:
The 'adjustment' of the world
economy
1997
The 'structural adjustment' of today's world economy, like in earlier
periods, is an interactive process between firms, markets and states.
The process, like in earlier periods, entails that the political
establishment serves the economic establishment, and the economic
establishment serves the most powerful capital, the latter being, in
the second half of the twentieth century, what in general terms is
defined as 'transnational corporations'.
-
The transnational corporate system in the late 1990s
1997
Transnational direct investment in less developed societies in the
1990s is consolidating further the historical regional spheres of
influence by the former colonial powers. By and large, Latin America,
Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe are becoming more than ever "spheres of
control of production and trade" by the financial and industrial
centers of the world. Globalization is a task undertaken by the
transnational corporate system, and the system has three clear centers
(United States, Japan, and the major economies of the European Union).
Those centers attract almost totally the flows of international payment
to factors of production, creating a financial situation where capital
flows from poor societies to rich societies, as it was in the times of
colonization and imperial expansion from the 1500s to the 1930s.
-
A market-friendly strategy for development
1998
Since the mid-1970s in the case of Chile and the early 1980s in the
case of the rest of the countries in the region, Latin America have
been applying "a market-friendly strategy for development" (see R.
Rojas, International capital
and intellectual dishonesty). The model, being based on what I call
"free-market fundamentalism", will develop very well defined features,
which will affect one factor of production (labour) in several negative
ways while it will give the other factor of production (capital) the
opportunity to become stronger, and more efficient. (The effects on the
pattern of production, mainly leading to a fractured and dependent
capitalist economy, are described in R. Rojas: 15 years of monetarism in Latin America: time to scream
).
-
Notes on agribusiness in the 1990s
1998
The enormous economic-political power that transnational corporations
in agribusiness can exercise in the host countries where they operate
comes mainly from the links between production and trade in what is
called 'vertical integration'.
United Nation's World Investment Report 1996, "Investment, Trade and
International Policy Arrangements", U.N., 1996, describes the dynamics
driving agribusiness towards oligopolistic markets:
"...renewable resources products are imported by firms of the home
country (as a rule, a developed country), normally in the first
instance
through arm's length contracts, i.e. by trade between...
-
Transnational corporations in developing countries
1998
"The politics of the new imperialism is characterized by the collusion
of the multinationals, Latin American militaries, the managers of state
enterprises, and a Latin American bourgeoisie that has accommodated
itself to the new international division of labour. Within this
context, the hypothesized relationship between economic development and
democracy examined above becomes irrelevant because in the imperialist
system it is not the form of the government that matters but the fact
of economic and political domination by the agents of international
capitalism. Wether the game is populist, democratic reformist, or
military authoritarian makes little difference because real power
continues to be held by the same players" (G. W. Wynia, "The politics
of Latin American Development", Cambrige University Press, 1978, p.
319)
-
Latin America: blockages to development
1984
It is argued that, so far, all theories of the Latin American process
have been biased by an external approach. Examining the theoretical
foundations of these theories, it is concluded that these cannot
explain the class and production structures existing in the region,
neither can predict the emergence of qualitatively new phenomena.
Having criticised the discourses of underdevelopment, dependency,
development ( modernization ), and world system theories, the analysis
then proceeds with the argument that a theory of the Latin
American process must conceptualize the social organization of the
continent as an entity in itself, and not as an appendage to the
development of capitalism in the industrialized countries. Such a
theory must be centered on the internal dynamics of the Latin
American social structure, and then assess the actual role played
by capitalism and imperialism in its policy.
-
Development Studies: Researching
for the big bosses?
1996
In the late 1990s, development research, following the path
of development studies in Western European and North American
universities, have been concerned almost totally with how
international agencies can and should encourage development, and
very little with the empirical study of social change as taking
place in a global environment in which the policy framework at the
international level reduces the scope for manoeuvre at the national
level. By and large, contemporary research in development has become
a "subcontracting" activity, where the financing bodies are the World
Bank, the International Monetary Fund and large transnational
corporations, all of them interested in imposing a particular type of
"modernisation" on less developed societies, regardless the suffering
inflicted on large sectors of the population. Other sources of finance,
of course, are governmental organizations in the industrialized
countries interested more on expanding their trade than helping to
"develop" other societies. Thus, by and large, contemporary
development research became a third rate non-scientific
activity loosing the scientific ground conquered in the 1960s and
early 1970s mainly by Latin American scholars and by a few academics
in the United States and Western Europe.
-
International capital and
intellectual dishonesty
1999
The basic rationale of what loosely is quoted or misquoted as "export-
led growth" has its foundation on the ideological position that
capitalist market always clears, and therefore delivers goods and
services as needed by those members of society who can buy them.
The old triple alliance between the state, domestic monopolic capital
and foreign capital was changed to a double alliance (domestic
monopolic capital and foreign capital) with a political warden (the
state) making sure that the domestic market was firmly in the hands
of the double alliance.
In a more sophisticated fashion, the intellectuals employed/hired by
the
World Bank did put together, in 1991, the following
conceptualization:...
|
United Nations:
Declaration on the Right to
Development
1986
... Article 1
1. The right to development is an inalienable human right by virtue of
which every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate
in,
contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political
development,
in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully
realized.
2. The human right to development also implies the full realization of
the right of peoples to self-determination, which includes, subject to
the
relevant provisions of both International Covenants on Human Rights,
the
exercise of their inalienable right to full sovereignty over all their
natural
wealth and resources.
Article 2
1. The human person is the central subject of development and should be
the active participant and beneficiary of the right to development...
---
International Conference on Financing for Development
The
International Conference on Financing for Development was held from
18-22 March 2002 in Monterrey, N.L., Mexico. This United Nations-hosted
conference on key financial and development issues attracted 50
Heads of State or Government, over 200 ministers as well as leaders
from the private sector, civil society and all the major
intergovernmental financial, trade, economic, and monetary
organizations.
The
culmination of a four-year preparatory process, the Conference
adopted the Monterrey Consensus, in which developed,
developing and transition economy countries pledged to undertake
important actions in domestic, international and systemic policy
matters.
December of 2002, the General Assembly set in motion a detailed
follow-up intergovernmental process, as called for in the Consensus, to
monitor implementation and carry foward the international discussion of
policies for financing development. The Assembly also called on
the Secretary-General to establish a standing secretariat to support
the process. The Financing for Development Office was then
created in the Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA).
This web
site, maintained by the Financing for Development Office, serves to
disseminate information on all aspects of the follow-up process.
|
Social Watch Annual Reports:
2007: In dignitiy and rights. Making
the universal right to social security a reality
2006: Impossible architecture
2005: Roars and whispers
2004: Fear and Want.
Obstacles to Human Security
2003 : The Poor and the Market
2002: The social impact of
globalisation in the world
2001: Much ado...
2000: From the summits to the
grassroots
1999: From the summits to the
grassroots
1998: Equity and social development
1997: From the summits to the
grassroots
1996: Women and citizenship in Latin America
|
S. Raghavan/S. Chatterjee (June
24, 2001)
How your chocolate may be tainted
DALOA, Ivory Coast - There may be a hidden ingredient in the chocolate
cake you baked, the candy bars your children sold for their school
fund-raiser o that fudge ripple ice cream cone you enjoyed on Saturday
afternoon.
Slave labor.
Forty-three percent of the world's cocoa beans, the raw material in
chocolate, come from small, scattered farms in this poor West African
country. And on some of the farms, the hot, hard work of clearing the
fields and harvesting the fruit is done by boys who were sold or
tricked into slavery. Most of them are
between the ages of 12 and 16. Some are as young as 9.
The lucky slaves live on corn paste and bananas. The unlucky ones are
whipped, beaten and broken like horses to harvest the almond-sized
beans that are made into chocolate treats for more fortunate children
in Europe and America.
|
Project Syndicate
is an international
association of 208 newspapers in 105 countries, devoted to the
following objectives:
*bringing distinguished voices from around the world to informed
national audiences so as to create a global forum for broadening debate
and exchanging ideas;
*strengthening the independence of newspapers in postcommunist and
developing countries through a variety of training programs;
*fostering professional links among member papers.
|
Submerging
markets. Tracking the global development crisis
|
A.
Tausch: Submerging markets. The development marathon,
1960-2000, and its lessons for East Central Europe
|
IMF: Finance & Development
|
The World Bank: Public Disclosure Authorized
WPS 24
Financial structure and economic development
Firm, Industry and Country Evidence
Thorsten Beck, Asli Demirgfic-Kunt, Ross Levine and Vojislav Maksimovic
World
Development Sources
( from World Bank reports and
110,000 documents online)
|
U.S. Department of State:
1999 Country Reports on Economic Policy and Trade
Practices
1998 Country Reports on Economic Policy and Trade
Practices
1997 Country Reports on Economic Policy and Trade
Practices
1996 Country Reports on Economic Policy and Trade
Practices
1995 Country Reports on Economic Policy and Trade
Practices |
| J. Foran: The future of revolutions at the
fin-de-siecle |
| DEVELOPMENTS (published by the DFID) |
| REPORTS: science from the developing world |
| SciDevNet: news, views and information
about science, technology and development |
United Nations
Economic and Social Development
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Overview
Division for Development Policy Analysis
Division for Economic and Social Council Support and
Coordination
Division for Social Policy and Development
Division for Sustainable Development
Division for the Advancement of Women
Office of the Special Coordinator for Africa and the
Least Developed Countries
Population Division
Statistics
Division
DESA News - the newsletter of the Department
produced by the Information Support Unit with feature articles by DESA
staff
---------------------------------------
Home | Search
| Parliament
| Research
| Governments
| Regions
| Issues
Other
United Nations economic and social development secretariats
------------------------------------- |
U.N.
Agenda 21: Implementation of the Rio commitments
------------------------- |
Third World Institute
----------------------- |
Progress in
Development Studies (journal)
--------------------------- |
|
UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics
Online |
|
|
 The goal of the UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics
online is to provide the statistical data essential for the
analysis of the world trade, investment, international financial flows
and development. This database provides the opportunity to disseminate
the economic, demographic and social series which serve as a
fundamental support for UNCTAD´s research tasks, intergovernmental
dialogue, and technical assistance.
This new version of the Handbook
introduces data for 2007 for most of the series as
well as consolidated data for previous years. In addition to the online
version, the publication is available in two complementary formats, the
printed
edition and the DVD
version, so that each user can take the best advantage of the available
statistics.
The data available from the Handbook of Statistics online
are structured into the following parts:
|
|
|
|
|
Social Indicators of Development
- 1995
A
World Bank data collection for over 170 countries, targeting the social
effects of economic development. Indicators for each country include:
size, growth, and structure of population; determinants of population
growth; labor force; education and illiteracy; natural resources;
income and poverty; expenditure on food, housing, fuel and power,
transport and communication; and investment in medical care and
education.
|
International
Development Research Centre
IDRC ("Centro
Internacional de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo") is a Canadian
Crown corporation that works in close collaboration with researchers
from the developing world in their search for the means to build
healthier, more equitable, and more prosperous societies.
|
Development Assistance Committee (OECD)
The Development
Assistance Committee (DAC, www.oecd.org/dac) is the principal body through
which the OECD deals with issues related to co-operation with
developing countries.
|
Center for Economic and Social
Rights
The Center for Economic and Social Rights
(CESR) works to promote social justice through human rights. In a world
where poverty and inequality deprive entire communities of dignity,
justice and sometimes life, we seek to uphold the universal human
rights of every human being to education, health, food, water, housing,
work, and other economic, social and cultural rights essential to human
dignity.
Extreme poverty and rising inequality should not simply be considered
an inevitable tragedy. Rather, they are often the result of conscious
policy choices by governments and other powerful actors (such as
corporations or international financial institutions) that undermine
people's access to the full range of human rights. CESR therefore seeks
to hold governments and other actors accountable to their obligations
to respect, protect and fulfill economic and social rights, as well as
civil and political rights.
CESR is working to:
- Promote the mainstreaming of economic,
social and cultural rights in all economic and social policymaking,
highlighting impacts of key global policy decisions;
- Develop new
methodologies for measuring and monitoring economic and social
rights compliance, contributing to more effective accountability for
economic, social and cultural rights;
- Empower and build capacities of
organizations within and beyond the human rights movement to advocate
more effectively for the fulfillment of these rights;
- Advocate for greater accountability for
economic, social and cultural rights within states and internationally,
including at the United Nations and regional human rights forums.
CESR
works in partnership with national and international organizations
in different countries across a range of disciplines.
"The idea of economic and social rights as human
rights expresses the moral intuition that, in a world rich in resources
and the accumulation of human knowledge, everyone ought to be
guaranteed the basic means for sustaining life, and that those denied
these are victims of a fundamental injustice."
--David Beetham, Democracy and Human Rights, 2000
Economic and Social Council /UN
About
ECOSOC
Development Programme /UNDP
Democratic
Governance
Poverty Reduction
Crisis Prevention & Recovery
Environment
& Energy
HIV/AIDS
|
Economics
Journals on the Web:
Economic Review
Taylor and Francis Journals Online
CatchWord
Home Page
Development
in Practice (Oxfam site)
---------------------------- |
Development
Journal (SID)
--------------------- |
| TOOLKIT A |
The making and unmaking of the
Third World through development
By Arturo Escobar - 1995
The following text is extracted from Chapter 2, 'The Problematization
of Poverty: The Tale of Three Worlds and Development', of Encountering
Development The Making and Unmaking of the Third World, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1995. The book poses a number of
fundamental questions. For example, why did the industrialized nations
of North America and Europe come to be seen as the appropriate models
of post-World War II societies in Africa, Asia and Latin America? How
did the postwar discourse on development actually create the so-called
Third World? The book shows how development policies became mechanisms
of control that were just as pervasive and effective as their colonial
counterparts. The development apparatus generated categories powerful
enough to shape the thinking even of its occasional critics, while
poverty and hunger became widespread. 'Development' was not even
partially 'deconstructed' until the 1980s, when new tools for analysing
the representation of social reality were applied to specific 'Third
World' cases. The author deploys these new techniques in a provocative
analysis of development discourse and practice in general, concluding
with a discussion of alternative visions for a post-development era.
|
The State, the community and
society in social development
by Fernando Henrique Cardoso, President of the Federative Republic of
Brazil
(Translation of the revised text of President Cardoso's address at the
First Regional Follow-up Conference on the World Social Development
Summit Meeting (Sao Paulo, 6-9 April 1997))
"The World Summit for Social Development, held in Copenhagen on 11 and
12 March 1995, brought up once more the ideals which gave rise to the
United Nations at the San Francisco Conference and which have since
been reasserted in many forums of the Organization. The maintenance of
peace and security, although an irreplaceable element in the peaceful
coexistence of nations, was not the only objective of that Conference,
however: it also sought to lay the foundations for a form of
coexistence which would make possible more harmonious development. The
United Nations Charter which emerged from that meeting was the clear
expression of a humanistic spirit and of the quest for democratic
ideals and values which made human beings the centre of governments’
concern."
|
United Nations - The General Assembly - 1 May 1974
Declaration on the establishment
of a New International Economic Order
We, the Members of the United Nations, Having
convened a special session of the General Assembly to study for the
first time the problems of raw materials and development, devoted to
the consideration of the most important economic problems facing the
world community,
Bearing in mind the spirit, purposes and
principles of the Charter of the United Nations to promote the economic
advancement and social progress of all peoples, Solemnly proclaim our
united determination to work urgently for THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER based on equity, sovereign equality,
interdependence, common interest and cooperation among all States,
irrespective of their economic and social systems which shall correct
inequalities and redress existing injustices, make it possible to
eliminate the widening gap between the developed and the developing
countries and ensure steadily accelerating economic and social
development and peace and justice for present and future generations,
and, to that end, declare:..."
|
| The
Progress of Nations 1999 |
| Global
Development Finance 1998 Vol.1 |
| Global
Development Finance 1999 |
| Global
Development Finance 1999. Country Tables |
| Global
Economic Prospects and the Developing Countries 2000 |
| The
State of Food Insecurity in the World 1999 |
| The
State of Food and Agriculture 1998 |
| World
Resources 1998-99: Data Tables |
| World
Resources 1998-99: Global Trends |
| World
Data Center for Human Interactions in the Environment |
|
| TOOLKIT B |
| Economic
Literacy |
| Action
Literacy |
| Marx, K. Capital, volumen 1 |
| Marx, K. Capital, volumen 2 |
| Marx, K. Capital, volumen 3 |
| Marx, K. Grundisse |
| Marx, K. Production, Consumption, Distribution, Exchange |
| Marx, K. Wage-labour and capital |
| Marx, K./Engels, F. Bourgeois and proletarians(1848)
|
| Marx/Engels
Library |
| WCC: Ecumenical Reflexions on Political Economy (1988) |
| UNDP: Growth as means to human development (1996) |
| UNDP: Ten years of Human Development (1990-1999) |
| TOOLKIT C |
| S. Saumon: The
IMF and the World Bank, tools of "Development Diplomacy"? |
| S. Saumon: From
state capitalism to neo-liberalism in Algeria: the case of a failing
state |
| S. Saumon: External
domination via domestic states: the case of Francophone Africa |
| S. Saumon: French
neo-colonialism in Francophone Africa? The role of the state in
processes of foreign domination |
|
| Artefacts |
| Calculator |
| Index and
Conversion Factors |
| Revision |
| Introduction
to economics |
| Introduction
to macroeconomics |
Human Development Report
2007/2008
Fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a divided world
Climate change is the defining human development challenge of the 21st
Century. Failure to respond to that challenge will stall and then
reverse international efforts to reduce poverty. The poorest countries
and most vulnerable citizens will suffer the earliest and most damaging
setbacks, even though they have contributed least to the problem.
Looking to the future, no country—however wealthy or powerful—will be
immune to the impact of global warming.
The Human Development Report 2007/2008 shows that climate change is not
just a future scenario. Increased exposure to droughts, floods and
storms is already destroying opportunity and reinforcing inequality.
Meanwhile, there is now overwhelming scientific evidence that the world
is moving towards the point at which irreversible ecological
catastrophe becomes unavoidable. Business-as-usual climate change
points in a clear direction: unprecedented reversal in human
development in our lifetime, and acute risks for our children and their
grandchildren.
Human
Development Report 2006
Beyond scarcity: power, poverty and the
global water crisis
Throughout history water has confronted humanity with some of its
greatest challenges. Water is a source of life and a natural resource
that sustains our environments and supports livelihoods – but it is
also a source of risk and vulnerability. In the early 21st Century,
prospects for human development are threatened by a deepening global
water crisis. Debunking the myth that the crisis is the result of
scarcity, this report argues poverty, power and inequality are at the
heart of the problem.
In a world of
unprecedented wealth, almost 2 million children die each year for want
of a glass of clean water and adequate sanitation. Millions of women
and young girls are forced to spend hours collecting and carrying
water, restricting their opportunities and their choices. And
water-borne infectious diseases are holding back poverty reduction and
economic growth in some of the world’s poorest countries.
|
Human Development Report 2005
International cooperation
at a crossroads: Aid, trade and security in an unequal world
| This year's Human Development Report takes
stock of human development, including progress towards the MDGs.
Looking beyond statistics, it highlights the human costs of missed
targets and broken promises. Extreme inequality between countries and
within countries is identified as one of the main barriers to human
development and as a powerful brake on accelerated progress towards the
MDGs. |
|
|
Human Development Report 2004
Cultural Liberty in Today's
Diverse World
| Accommodating people's growing demands for
their inclusion in society, for respect of their ethnicity, religion,
and language, takes more than democracy and equitable growth. Also
needed are multicultural policies that recognize differences, champion
diversity and promote cultural freedoms, so that all people can choose
to speak their language, practice their religion, and participate in
shaping their culture so that all people can choose to be who they are. |
|
|
Human Development Report 2003
Millennium Development
Goals: A compact among nations to end human poverty
| The range of human development in the world
is vast and uneven, with astounding progress in some areas amidst
stagnation and dismal decline in others. Balance and stability in the
world will require the commitment of all nations, rich and poor, and a
global development compact to extend the wealth of possibilities to all
people. |
|
|
Human Development Report 2002
Deepening democracy in a
fragmented world
| This Human Development Report is first and
foremost about the idea that politics is as important to successful
development as economics. Sustained poverty reduction requires
equitable growth-but it also requires that poor people have political
power. And the best way to achieve that in a manner consistent with
human development objectives is by building strong and deep forms of
democratic governance at all levels of society. |
|
|
Human Development Report 2001
Making new technologies
work for human development
| Technology networks are transforming the
traditional map of development, expanding people's horizons and
creating the potential to realize in a decade progress that required
generations in the past. |
|
|
Human Development Report 2000
Human rights and human
development
| Human Development Report 2000 looks at human
rights as an intrinsic part of development and at development as a
means to realizing human rights. It shows how human rights bring
principles of accountability and social justice to the process of human
development. |
|
|
Human Development Report 1999
Globalization with a Human
Face
| Global markets, global technology, global
ideas and global solidarity can enrich the lives of people everywhere.
The challenge is to ensure that the benefits are shared equitably and
that this increasing interdependence works for people not just for
profits. This year's Report argues that globalization is not new, but
that the present era of globalization, driven by competitive global
markets, is outpacing the governance of markets and the repercussions
on people. |
|
|
Human Development Report 1998
Consumption for Human
Development
| The high levels of consumption and production
in the world today, the power and potential of technology and
information, present great opportunities. After a century of vast
material expansion, will leaders and people have the vision to seek and
achieve more equitable and more human advance in the 21st century. |
|
|
Human Development Report 1997
Human Development to
Eradicate Poverty
| Eradicating poverty everywhere is more than a
moral imperative - it is a practical possibility. That is the most
important message of the Human Development Report 1997. The world has
the resources and the know-how to create a poverty-free world in less
than a generation. |
|
|
Human Development Report 1996
Economic growth and human
development
| The Report argues that economic growth, if
not properly managed, can be jobless, voiceless, ruthless, rootless and
futureless, and thus detrimental to human development. The quality of
growth is therefore as important as its quantity for poverty reduction,
human development and sustainability. |
|
|
Human Development Report 1995
Gender and human development
| The report analyses the progress made in reducing gender
disparities in the past few decades and highlights the wide and
persistent gap between women's expanding capabilities and limited
opportunities. Two new measures are introduced for ranking countries on
a global scale by their performance in gender equality and there
follows an analysis of the under-valuation and non-recognition of the
work of women. In conclusion, the report offers a five-point strategy
for equalizing gender opportunities in the decade ahead |
|
|
Human Development Report 1994
New dimensions of human security
The report introduces a new concept of human security
which equates security with people rather than territories, with
development rather than arms. It examines both the national and the
global concerns of human security.
|
|
|
Human Development Report 1993
People's Participation
| The Report examines how and to what extent people
participate in the events and processes that shape their lives. It
looks at three major means of peoples' participation: people-friendly
markets, decentralised governance and community organisations,
especially non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and suggests concrete
policy measures to address the growing problems of increasing
unemployment. |
|
|
Human Development Report 1992
Global Dimensions of Human
Development
| The richest 20% of the population now receives 150 times
the income of the poorest 20%. The Report suggests a two-pronged
strategy to break away from this situation. First, making massive
investments in their people and strengthening national technological
capacity can enable some developing countries to acquire a strong
competitive edge in international markets (witness the East Asian
industrializing tigers). Second, there should be basic international
reforms, including restructuring the Bretton Woods institutions and
setting up a Development Security Council within the United Nations. |
|
|
Human Development Report 1991
Financing Human Development
| Lack of political commitment rather than financial
resources is often the real cause of human development. This is the
main conclusion of Human Development Report 1991 - the second in a
series of annual reports on the subject. |
|
|
Human Development Report 1990
Concept and Measurement of human
development
| The Report addresses, as its main issue , the question of
how economic growth translates - or fails to translate - into human
development. The focus is on people and on how development enlarges
their choices. The Report discusses the meaning and measurement of
human development, proposing a new composite index. However, its
overall orientation is practical and pragmatic. |
|
|
|
